Nokia Case Study Essay

Introduction: As a former global leader in the cell phone industry, Nokia have a history of great ability to adapt new markets with a solid strategy. Formed in 1865, Nokia started out as a lumber mill and moved on to the production of electricity and rubber. In 1992, Nokia decided to focus solely on the cell phones industry and rapidly obtained great market share, and later became pioneers of the wireless revolution which derived the smartphones. Despite this impressive past and former position in the cell phone industry, it is obvious from the case study that Nokia have several problems causing the crucial recession of its market share the past years. One of the problems is the slow decision making which halts the possibility of innovative activities. Despite a staggering cost of 40 billion dollars on Research and Development, none of Nokia’s cell phones reached the market due to the bad decision making and internal rivalries. In the cell phone industry, it is crucial that you act fast or else you will be outrun by the competitors, which is exactly what happened with Nokia. Rothaermel, Hess (2010, p. 13) states that consistent innovation is the factor that drives the worlds successfully companies and explains that innovation is a crucial competitive advantage for companies in a harsh economic time as it allows them to change the market in their favour and hopefully become market leader. Without any changes in the decision making process and in the innovative culture, Nokia will keep declining, as their competitors such as Apple and HTC Corporation will keep being in front and control the market. This paper will argue that, in order to achieve a bigger market share and a better competitive advantage, Nokia needs to speed up their decision making and change their innovative culture and the linkage between these activities. Relevant theory will be discussed as well as recommendations for future activities will be provided, in order to get Nokia back on track. Analysis and Argument The decision making process from the management of a company is a crucial process in both internal and external perspectives. It determines the current situation and the future of the company, and has to remain continuous due to the constant interactions from the environment. The decision making process determines whether the company succeed or fail when launching a new product on the market, and that is why the company has to know whether the market is ready for their product or not. Baum, J.R. and Wally, S. (2003) states that a fast pace of the decision making is crucial when competitive advantage is desired in a market, as the new product you are launching will be adopted in an early stage and enter the market quicker than your competitors. This argument is supported by Eisenhardt (1989; as cited in Zehir, C., Mehtap, Ãâ€". 2008 p. 1) who has conducted a study of eight high-tech firms and concluded that the most profitable of these eight firms, were the ones with the fastest decision making process. A more superior study was completed by Judge and Miller (1991; as cited in Zehir, C., Mehtap, Ãâ€". 2008 p. 1) who stated that there is no linkage between the speed of decision making process and the performance of a company only with the exception of fast-moving environments, such as the cell phone industry, where it was discovered that these participating companies had higher performance and fast decision making processes. The cell phone industry is a fast-moving environment due to the development of new technology and constant changes, and it is in this industry that Nokia is located. Finally, Zehir, C., Mehtap, Ãâ€". (2008) argues in the light of the above evidence and personal studies, that a strategy with fast decision making will lead to competitive advantage. The importance of a fast decision making strategy is supported by the fortune of Nokia from the case study. With a very slow decision making and the sacking of several products, followed up by internal disagreements, the competitors in the fast-moving external environment suddenly started to outrun Nokia, which didn’t manage to address their internal abilities, such as the innovativeness. According to Andersen, T.J. (2001; as cited in Zehir, C., Mehtap, Ãâ€". 2008 p. 4), especially this innovativeness reflects the company’s capability to be the first in their environment to launch a product or system, and create competitive advantage and corporate performance. Han, J.K., Kim, N., Srivastava, R.K. (1998) supports this theory and believes that the innovativeness serves the purpose of being a mediator between the company’s market orientation, and the company’s performance. Nokia have used a huge amount of expenses to obtain this market orientation, so one could argue that more efficient innovation is the key to reach better performance. This precise opinion is what Blundell, R., Griffith, R., Van Reenen, J. (1999) states, as they also links the innovation of a company, with the achievement of greater market share and market stock value. From the above mentioned theories of faster decision making strategy and an efficient innovation performance and the associating arguments of these theories, you can argue that a relationship and cooperation between them is crucial and inevitable. This theory is supported by Zehir, C., Mehtap, Ãâ€". (2008) who defines that the fast decision making combined with innovative performance will lead to better corporate performance. This relationship might be the key to get Nokia back on track and back at the top of the cell phone industry. Recommendation It is recommended that Nokia change their decision making strategy immediately and become more aware of the changes in the external environment. Nokia ought to design its decision making strategy around Eisenhardt, K. M. (1999) four keys to decision making strategy. First, Nokia needs to establish collective intuition by hosting regular meetings and realistic cases for the management department, which will develop their ability to discover threats and opportunities in an early stage and more precisely. Second, they must assemble diverse teams and challenge them through heuristic and stressing situations with numerous alternatives, so the teams will improve their decision making ability under pressure. Third, Nokia needs to discipline the timing of the decision making through paced time schedules, prototyping and consensus in the teams to maintain the momentum in the strategic choices. Lastly, emphasize a common goal and a clear set of rules, and remember to have fun. These tactics avoid that the decision makers are getting into interpersonal conflicts and waste the time on politics, which Nokia already have used incredible amounts of time doing without any luck. The execution of these four keys leads towards a more effective strategy, making the decision making process a cornerstone of the strategy. These four keys with the team based approach that is striving to create a common goal and keeping the process fun are to be transferred to the innovation department in order to optimize this as well. Teams of innovation and development are to be established, instead of letting the employees fight an internal battle for the right to keep their jobs. This battle creates disorder in the internal community, and is discouraging the employees and affects their efficiency. Instead, it is crucial that the innovative department works towards a common goal and is continuously challenged in order for them to keep the momentum and keep improving, while they are having fun doing it. Conclusion From the arguments presented in this paper, it is apparent that in order for Nokia to return to the top of the cell phone industry and reconquer the lost market share, they need to change the decision making strategy entirely, and develop a much faster and efficient one. This will allow them to launch new products to the market more frequently and increase the opportunity for successful products. These frequent products will promote the innovative performance and make the company more adaptable to the many changes in the environment, and allow them to affect the market themselves. It is not possible to choose which argument that is the most suitable, as they relate to each other because a faster decision making process leads to more efficient innovative performance, which leads to better corporate performance and more market share. The snowball effect will emerge, but Nokia has to start rolling the ball. With this in mind, these changes will not do it alone. Several corporate changes in the entire organization must be performed in order for this to succeed, but the history of Nokia will help them in this challenge, as they have faced great organizational changes before and know what it takes. References: Rothaermel, F.T & Hess, M (2010), ’Innovation Strategies Combined’, MIT Sloan Management Review, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 13-15, viewed 20 April 2013, ProQuest Research Library, Eisenhardt, K.M (1989), ‘Making fast strategic decisions in high-velocity environments’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 543-76 Judge, W.Q & Miller, A (1991), ‘Antecedents and outcomes of decision speed in different environmental contexts’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 449-63 Baum, J.R & Wally, S (2003), ‘Strategic decision speed and firm performance’, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 24 No. 11, pp. 1107-29 Zehir, C & Mehtap, Ãâ€" (2008), ‘A field research on the relationship between strategic decision-making speed and innovation performance in the case of Turkish large-scale firms’, Management Decision, Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 709-724, viewed 20 April 2013, ProQuest Research Library, DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251740810873473 Han, J.K, Kim, N & Srivastava, R.K (1998), ‘Market orientation and organizational performance: Is innovation a missing link?’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 62, No. 4, pp. 30-45, viewed 20 April 2013, ProQuest Research Library, Andersen, T.J (2001), ‘Information technology, strategic decision-making approaches and organizational performance in different industrial settings’, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 10, pp. 101-19 Blundell, R, Griffith, R & Van Reenen, J. (1999), ‘Market share, market value and innovation in a panel of British manufacturing firms’, The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 66, No. 228, pp. 529-554, viewed 21 April 2013, ProQuest Research Library, Eisenhardt, K. M (1999) ‘Strategy as strategic decision making‘, Sloan Management Review, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 65-72, viewed 21 April 2013, ProQuest Research Library,

Organizational Focus and Goals Essay

Every organization has a specific set of goals and a differing focus. The only real commonality between them is, and they all strive for success. The focus of an organization will change depending on the needs of the organization and goals are set to attain the focus. Organizational Focus Currently, my organization is focused on doubling our company size in the next five years, growth. We are the second largest manufacturer of our product in the United States. Our overarching goal is to be the number one supplier. My organization understands to achieve this goal, our productivity and profitability depend on making sure all of our employees perform up to their full potential. â€Å"Goal setting is one of the primary tools used by organizations to assist in setting a direction and achieving it.† (Cothran & Wysocki, 2015, para. 1). My organization has set forth many goals some small and some large to obtain. Each goal is a milestone and a stepping stone toward our overarching goal of being number one. Training Needs Training is a central focus right now in my organization. With the size of the company expanding, so does every aspect of it. What this means is that software, tasks, functions, production, processes, and many other areas are all changing. These are just a few to illuminate the need for training. As the organization experiences growth, training is needed to prepare employees to harness the growth that is change. Seasoned employees will need trained in the new software, processes, and even new job duties. Training will keep the wheel of business turning and moving forward to reach the overarching goal, to be number one in the industry. Besides existing employees needing training, with the company expanding its size, this means a lot of new hires will be funneling into all the departments to fill the needs of the organization. These new employees will also need training; however, they will also need to learn the organizational norms, trends, rules, and code of conduct. The new hires will play a vital role in propelling us into the future and meeting our ultimate (overarching) goal. Prioritizing Training The goals set forth by my organization are packaged together to allow for training prior to moving forward. As an example, we rolled out a new software program to meet our needs. This program will take over the current one and move us into position to better keep up with finances as we double our size. The training for the new software was rolled out two months prior to the actual software. The priority of training is relevant to what package is being rolled out. Organizational goals and current focus will significantly impact what training is needed and when it is needed. Specific Training Needs What my organization is doing in regards to prioritizing training is working great. I would not change anything. Prior to something new being rolled out, ample time is given for training. Each new package released has specific training methods attached to bring seasoned employees up to date and introduce new hires. Conclusion The overarching goal is the ultimate goal or where the company wants to be. Training employees according to the ultimate goal will ensure that the workforce is being properly trained to achieve it. If an organization does not keep the overarching goal in mind while prioritizing training, there could be a lapse in training. What this means is that the employees and organizational goals will meet at a crossroads, and the employees will not be prepared. The failure in training will ultimately prevent the organization from reaching the overarching goal. References Blanchard, P.N., & Thacker, J.W. (2007). Employee training and development (3rd Ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Cothran, H.M., & Wysocki, A.F. (2015). Developing Smart Goals for Your Organization. University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe577 Noe, R.A. (2008). Employee training and development (4th Ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Financial Accounting Standards Boards’ Codification Essay

For my role as a staff accountant, I was assigned to research the appropriate accounting for revenue treatment of construction contracts for a client, LabCo. In specific, I was assigned to oversee LabCos’ contract involving a six-axis laser-cutting machine with Halibut Co. After researching and developing a theory based on the Financial Accounting Standards Boards’ Codification, I have concluded that LabCos’ treatment of revenue was reasonable; however, they should have changed revenue recognition principles sooner. In this situation, there are three possible ways they can handle changing their accounting method: Retrospective Application, Change in Accounting Estimate Method, or Change in Estimate Affected by Accounting Principle. The revenue treatment principle for a construction type principle states, â€Å"In accounting for contracts, the basic accounting policy decision is the choice between two generally accepted methods: the percentage-of-completion method including units of delivery and the completed-contract method. The determination of which of the two methods is preferable is based on a careful evaluation of circumstances because the two methods should not be acceptable alternatives for the same circumstances (ASC 605-35-25-1).† LabCo agreed to build a six-axis laser-cutting machine for Halibut. The contract entered into was a fixed price contract. A fixed price contract is, â€Å"An agreement to perform all acts under the contract for a stated price† (ASC 605-35-15-4). LabCo decided to use the percentage of completion method for recognizing income. â€Å"The percentage of completion method recognizes income as work on a contracts progress† (ASC 605-35-25-51). Income recognized shall be that percentage of estimated total income, either: â€Å"That incurred costs to date bear to estimated total costs after giving effect to estimates of costs to complete based on most recent information, or that may be indicated by such other measure of progress toward completion as may be appropriate having due regard to work performed (ASC 605-32-25-52).† It is appropriate to use the percentage of completion method when, â€Å"The ability to make reasonably dependable estimates, which, for purposes of this Subtopic, relates to estimates of the extent of progress toward completion, contract revenues, and contract costs (ASC 605-35-25-56.)† LabCo believed they could correctly estimate the cost to build a laser cutting machine because they had completed similar contracts in the past for Halibut. After the contract went into effect, LabCo experienced difficulties designing and manufacturing the laser cutting machine. They were forced to redo initial designs, outsource engineering costs, and the price of steel used to construct the cutting machine unexpectedly rose. LabCo had to re-estimate their costs to complete the project and concluded that the excess costs would exceed the total fixed fee contract price they negotiated with Halibut. To update their estimated costs, LabCo continued using the percentage of completion method. LabCo appropriately recorded a loss in the period in which they became aware. â€Å"When the current estimates of total contract revenue and contract cost indicate a loss, a provision for the entire loss on the contract shall be made. Provisions for losses shall be made in the period in which they become evident under either the percentage-of-completion method or the completed-contract method (ASC 605-35-25-46.)† LabCo experienced another setback which delayed their process six more months. When the cutting machine was finally complete, they delivered it to Halibut to have it tested. During the final test, the machine failed to meet the specifications of Halibut. LabCo was forced to redesign and fix the various problems with the machine. At this point, LabCos’ chief accounting officer decided to switch to the completed contract method, which says, â€Å"Under the completed-contract method, income is recognized only when a contract is completed or substantially completed. Accordingly, during the period of performance, billings and costs are accumulated on the balance sheet, but no profit or income is recorded before completion or substantial completion of the work (ASC 605-35-25-88).† â€Å"The completed contract method is preferable when lack of dependable estimates or inherent hazards cause forecasts to be doubtful (ASC 605-35-25-90)†, which was the case in the situation. The two methods, percentage of completion and completed contract, are not acceptable alternatives for the same situation (ASC 605-35-25-1). LabCo should have realized after running into unexpected costs the first time that they should have switched to the completed contract method. â€Å"An entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts for which reasonably dependable estimates cannot be made or for which inherent hazards make estimates doubtful (ASC 605-35-25-61).† LabCo is able to handle this change in of accounting principle in one of the three methods; Retrospective Application, Change in Accounting Estimate, or Change in Accounting Estimate Affected by Accounting Principle. It is clear that the percentage of completion method was not the acceptable alternative because LabCo could not effectively estimate costs. The completed contract method is the preferable method because there was a lack of dependable estimates. LabCos’ decision to switch from percentage of completion to completed contract method is in accordance with FASB Codification because this transition can be handled by the Accounting Staff to apply a retrospective application to the previous year’s financial information. â€Å"The application of a different accounting principle to one or more previously issued financial statements, or to the statement of financial position at the beginning of the current period, as if that principle had always been used, or a change to financial statements of prior accounting periods to present the financial statements of a new reporting entity as if it had existed in those prior years. (ASC 250-10-20)† Since the retrospective application is applied to this situation to show the effect of the change to completed contract method; the estimated contract costs were no longer reliably determinable, therefore, disclosure for the reasons behind this change must be included within the year’s financial statements when the change actually is incurred. The situation can also be handled with a Change in Accounting Estimate approach. When LabCo incurred significant difficulties with the design and manufacturing of the laser machine, they decided to update their estimates used in the percentage of completion method to reflect both the cost overruns incurred as well as the cost overruns expected to be incurred. Handling it with this approach prohibits the retrospective treatment to the situation. It will affect only the period of change and future periods, if the change affects both, in which case it does. â€Å"The effect on income from continuing operations, net income (or other appropriate captions of changes in the applicable net assets or performance indicator), and any related per-share amounts of the current period shall be disclosed for a change in estimate that affects several future periods.† (ASC 250-10-50-4) The final approach that could have handled this situation is the Change in Estimate Affected by a Change in Accounting Principle. Due to LabCo dealing with continued problems with the Halibut contract, and prior estimates adjusted previously during the contract period, it forced the Chief Accountant of LabCo to allow the change in accounting principle from percentage of completion method to completed contract method. LabCo can make this change by it being impossible to determine whether a change in principle or a change in estimate has occurred. â€Å"If it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect of applying a change in accounting principle to any prior period, the new accounting principle shall be applied as if the change was made prospectively as of the earliest date practicable.† (ASC 250-10-45-7) After much continued research and intellectual thought, we have concluded that the Retrospective Application is not sufficient in this matter because the estimates have been altered drastically; to retrospectively apply the changes this year would distort Net Income figures to the point where timeliness and consistency will no longer apply. The Change in Accounting Estimate would seem sufficient to apply to this situation, but it will not work because a change in estimate cannot be applied retrospectively. Therefore, I have concluded that the best way to handle this issue is the Change in Accounting Estimate affected by the Change in Accounting Principle approach. I have come to this conclusion based on the facts that due to a change in accounting principle and change in accounting estimate both being involved in this situation, and retrospective application not being applicable, the entire effect of the two changes should be applied in a prospective method. This free SWOT analysis shows strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. We cover over 40,000 companies and industries. This SWOT analysis for Labco can provide a competitive advantage. Strengths|

The Process of Institution Governance and Decision Making Research Paper

The Process of Institution Governance and Decision Making - Research Paper Example The process of institutional governance and decision making is dependent on how the authority is distributed amongst the administration under the legal rights and obligation. This ultimately trickles down to the organizational behaviour of the members of the institute, which is unfolded into what direction the institute adopts by unfolding its strategies that impact all the stakeholders. One of the solutions to avoid the conflict amongst different stakeholder groups by the board of the higher academic institute is by provisioning of ‘shared governance’, which allows representation of views of all the stakeholders that are affected by the decision making process. This happens because each stakeholder group provides the views and inputs related to their interest in the decision-making process of the board. Faculty, student groups, members of the alumni, members of the board of trustees, founder members, investors etc. are all provided with a chance to share their views in setting up a strategy by the board for the future of the institute. Rivera (2008) pointed out that shared governance is the process of involving many different actors in making decisions or choosing outcome direction that serves the best interest of the whole. But this has also been criticized by many schools of thought since it is believed that institutions are to be managed like corporations. Hence applications of concepts such as delegation of authority, a division of autonomy and negotiations form part of how the decisions unroll and who has the advantage in terms of higher bargaining power.

Steel Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Steel Industry - Essay Example Arcelor was also the top steel producer in 2003 and 2004 in terms of output in metric tons (International Iron and Steel Institute [IISI]). POSCO, based in Korea, is a manufacturer and distributor of steel rolled products and plates in the domestic and overseas markets. In 2004, the company produced more than 30.2 million tons of crude steel. Its products include hot rolled and cold rolled products, plates, wire rods, silicon steel sheets and stainless steel products. Other products include lower value-added semi-finished products such as pig iron, billets, blooms and slabs. The company enjoyed a market share of around 50% of the total steel products sales in Korea in 2004, with 74.2% of its total sales generated primarily from the Korean market. The company's major export market is Asia, primarily the Chinese and Japanese markets. Other important markets are North America and Europe (POSCO Annual Report). POSCO is the fifth top producer in terms of output from 2003 to 2004 (IISI). Mittal Steel Company N.V., formerly known as Ispat International N.V., produces finished and semi-finished carbon steel products including hot-rolled sheets, cold-rolled sheets, plates, electro-galvanized and coated steel, bars, wire-rods, wire-products, pipes, billets, blooms, slabs, tinplate, structural sections and rails. The company produces steel according to various specifications such as many difficult and technically sophisticated products for use in several high-end applications. Mittal Steel supplied industries in more than 90 countries in 2004, concentrating mainly in North American and European markets. In 2004, it was one of the largest manufacturers of direct reduced iron, with total production of 9.7 million tons. Mittal Steel takes advantage of its strategic shipping location in London, which is a key hub of the global shipping business (Mittal Steel Annual Report). Mittal Steel was the second top steel producer in 2003 and 2004 (IISI). Source: International Iron and Steel Institute However, Mittal, which consolidated Ispat International, Ispat Inland, LNM Holdings and International Steel Group in late 2004 and early 2005, is bound to become the largest steel producer in the world. Steel producers continuously face difficult challenges. For instance, steel companies are highly dependent on demands of such industries as the automotive, beverage and housing that when these industries suffer, they follow suit ("Steel and Iron Industry Profile"). Steel companies exporting their products to North America also have to tackle various issues. In the United States, companies such as POSCO of South Korea and Nippon Steel of Japan, has to contend with complaints from US steel makers demanding an end to illegal dumping by offshore steel manufacturers ("Steel and Iron Industry Profile"). United States Steel Corporation, based in Pittsburgh, PA, is the second largest integrated steelmaker in the United States, and the seventh top steel producer in the world, producing sheet and semi-finished steel, tubular and plate steel and tin products. The company primarily markets its products to the automotive, construction,

Crowding and Psychological Stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Crowding and Psychological Stress - Essay Example Virtually all systems (for example, the heart and blood vessels, the immune system, the lungs, the digestive sys tem, the sensory organs, and brain) are modified to meet the perceived danger" (Sanberg 982) Wright notices that stress "is a medical term for a wide range of strong external stimuli, both physiological and psychological, which can cause a physiological response called the general adaptation syndrome". (Wright 358) Crowding is mentioned to be acute stress. Acute stress is immediate reaction of organism to danger or threat which is also known as "fight or flight response". This category also includes such psychological stresses as noise, isolation, hunger, infection and imaginary threat. All these kinds of stress, including crowding has psychological effect, because they act on the subconscious level and they are really dangerous for people's mentality. (Yao 859) Crowding is a potential source of psychological stress and one more area of interest. It is unpleasant feeling of people when there is a crowd (too many people) around them and it is unpleasant when there is too little available space. But it doesn't mean that crowding refers to density ("an objective measure of the number of people per unit"). (Sandberg 983) In density situations there are people who fell crowded and there are people who don't. ... But it doesn't mean that crowding refers to density ("an objective measure of the number of people per unit"). (Sandberg 983) In density situations there are people who fell crowded and there are people who don't. The problem of crowding is dealing with the influences of the environment on people's behavior. It is a matter of fact that crowding has direct emotional and behavioral affect on humans and it is only a psychological phenomenon. It is a common knowledge that many human consider crowding as negative or unfavorable situation. It is commonly suggested (without proof) that in most cases crowding is the source of aggression, crime or violence. Some environmental psychologists admitted that there were positive relations between crowding and bad social conditions as violence or crime. (984) It can be stated that with the increase of crowding and density there will be the increase in death-rate, crime rate and mental disorders. But Sanberg argued that when social factors are considered (economic level, educational level, and ethnicity) then correlation between crowding negative situations disappears. Therefore it is necessary to say that the problem of crowding is not so simple and easy as it may seem for the first time. This issue is more complex and contradictive In researches it is pointed out that density increases with performance. But humans fell less crowded with their relatives and friends. It is also stated that "someone with a large personal space need would feel crowded sooner than someone with a small personal space need." (986) Also sex differences (women and men) lead to different perception of crowding. For example, men were reported to have more stresses in case of crowding. Cognitive

Comparing John Milton's character Satan in Paradise Lost to Dante's Research Paper

Comparing John Milton's character Satan in Paradise Lost to Dante's Lucifer, and how their portrayal of these characters differe - Research Paper Example This paper is a comparison of two characters: John Milton’s Satan and Dante Alighieri’s Lucifer. The thesis statement that carries this paper toward a direction is that: Milton’s Satan is an embodiment of power, heroism and leadership; while, Dante’s Lucifer is powerless, dull and uninteresting. Paradise Lost is one of the greatest masterpieces of John Milton’s, which has been studied, criticized, and evaluated in every period of time since it was written. The character of Satan has been evaluated in different regards, mainly claimed as being the most convoluted and dynamic character in literature. In Milton’s text, Satan is shown as possessing a sense of havoc, chaos, and wreck. The reader is never clear whom Milton is justifying as being innocent: Satan, or Adam and Eve. Flannagan (26) writes in his book that many romantic critics believe that Milton is unknowingly in the devil’s party, as he portrays Satan as the most powerful chara cter throughout the story, seducing us into following his leadership when, for example, he is shown arguing with Areopagitica, or when he chooses to speak truth for a moment. The reader ends up sympathizing with the Satan in the minutest of feeling, in addition to the greatness of Shakespearean acting in his character. Ruth and Milton (15) write, â€Å"Milton’s appealing delineation of Satan’s character, some commentators say, forces the reader to sympathize and identify with the fallen archangel just as Milton himself does.† Satan is shown on a hot lake of molten lava in Hell, and weeping at a point later, which are the sites the reader empathizes with him at. The energy that comes out of his character while he is in the Hell, and while he plans the whole story against Adam and Eve, makes his character so magnificent that no other character in the story can beat. God, in comparison, has been portrayed as an uninteresting character in Paradise Lost- something th at the Satan convinces the reader to believe in Book 3, while behaving like a naive victim all the way. At least this is the perception the reader conceives when he reads the Satan’s fervent dialogues and their contagious rhetoric throughout the storyline. His speeches are as weird as the disguise he adopts to entice Eve to eat the Forbidden Tree; that is, the serpent that is clever, sharp, quick, smart, and vengeful. Carrying angelic features and possessing potent weapons, Satan is shown as an embodiment of authority, power, control, and leadership. He is the leader of the fallen angels, sharing with them the plan to leave the Hell for a quest based on vengeance. Critics and reviewers have agreed upon the heroic aspect of Satan in Paradise Lost; for example, Brackett (313) writes that Milton has shown Satan as such a â€Å"clearly and dramatically drawn figure that many post-romanticism readers viewed him as a heroic figure, a Byronic hero of sorts†¦as Satan proudly de clares his preference for the position of ruler of hell to servant in heaven.† Hence, the heroic and leadership incarnation of Satan’s character in Paradise Lost shows Milton’s idea of sin that has been discussed many a times by critiques later on. It is also important to discuss how Milton has expressed Satan’s persona of heroism and leadership in his work. Satan is proud of his army that he thinks is so powerful that repulse can never be known.

The accidental investment and Mans search for meaning compared Essay

The accidental investment and Mans search for meaning compared - Essay Example These themes revolve around ethics, morality, values and motivation. Ethics is the differentiation of good and bad and so is morality. Morality however has an aspect that revolves around the background the individual or people have been brought up in and the morals that were instilled in such individuals. It is therefore not a wonder then that in the first book which solely deals with bankers, the author describes in detail how some bankers shamelessly and in most cases surreptitiously swindle their clients finances by lying about investments and especially those made through the internet. The author who was also in that business but later due to the lack of ethics and morality of the colleagues left explains how those bankers are self-centered thinking only about their future and not of those clients. This may be termed as a lack of morality, self-value and even ethics. The theme of motivation in this book becomes evident where it the motivations of the bankers to make ends meet and avoid having a poor future that make them swindle and lie to clients about investments. The same can be said about the second book whose concept of lack of morality, values and ethics revolves around the Nazi soldiers whose lack of the above mentioned themes led to them treating the Jews inhumanely and subjecting them to unbearable torture. It is this torture that made the author of the book decide to introduce a motivator through counseling the rest of the prisoners to keep their hopes and dreams alive and avoid them losing touch and giving up in life despite them being in the concentration camp. In the first book about investment, the author gives first-hand experience of what really goes on in the investment business that the rest of the population do not know are simply too ignorant to understand. The ethics and morality by bankers in the investment business has simply evolved from being that based on truth and deep care for the client to that of making money and generating rev enue regardless of how they will do it. Their values are not in customer satisfaction or benefit like it used to be the case in other previous decades, they simply think about themselves and their future which is uncertain and hence will fleece the innocent investors of their money without flinching an eye. Their motivation relies on internet and it superb working to connect many investors and at the same time remain faceless hence avoiding feelings of guilt in the end. The other book â€Å"Man’s search of meaning† is simply a personal experience about the author’s time spent in Nazi’s concentration camp, the hardships they faced, the inhumane treatment, the lack of morals and values by the guards running the camps and in the end the motivation behind survival in the camps and not giving up hope in spite of all the mistreatment. The theme of the first part of the book is about ethics and morality and how the guards in the concentration camp just like the bankers in the above book think about only themselves and hence step down harder on the rest of the people to achieve their goals and objectives at the end of the day. The motivation in the second part where logo therapy is employed by the author in a bid to keep alive and survive all that is interconnected with the motivation behind the banker’s use of internet to benefit themselves and feel less guilt or sad emotions for what they are doing. 2 How do the themes connect with my own ethics, values, interests and motivators? Ethics enable a person differentiate between the good and the bad and therefore make one avoid or correct the things that are deemed bad by the individual or society and concentrate on the good or work towards the good. The

How the American media influenced Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

How the American media influenced Japan - Essay Example as well as political effects on a society, and thus, a huge number of scholars and experts are putting efforts to understand the influence and effects of media on its own society, as well as societies around the globe. In particular, this paper will be endeavor to analyze the role of American media in the Japanese society, and will attempt to identify different aspects of the American media that is playing a crucial role in altering the Japanese culture and society. In sociology, experts (Richardson, pp. 23-25) consider American media as a powerful body that has the command of influencing nations globally, and they often term American media as ‘pop culture.’ In specific, American media is a wide sector involving huge range of components, such as television, films, newspapers, and radio; however, experts believe that only television and films have the ability to influences masses due to their long-ranging availability as compared with newspapers and radio that confront limitation of national, as well as educational boundaries. Interestingly, the two components of the American media: television and films have yet been successful in promoting individuals in other countries to think, behave, act, and respond in an American way, and that is visible in most of the countries, especially the Asian countries that are already under influence of American politics and power. It is an observation that sociologists (Porter, pp. 12-13) in Japan are now afraid of cultural homogenization in the country due to increment in the influence of American pop culture globally. In this regard, they are putting efforts to prevent such cultural deterioration in a significant manner by putting barriers. Still, the American media has been successful in acquiring mass audience in Japan, and nowadays, MTV, Star World, Hollywood, etc have now become a part of Japanese society, especially young members of Japan that will be the future leaders of Japanese culture and society. A number of

Existentialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Existentialism - Essay Example 1. Abstract: Summary or overview of the paper 2. Introduction: An expository and informative pro and cons of existentialism 3. Arguments in support of existentialism 4. Criticism or arguments against existentialism 5. Conclusion. Abstract The purpose of this paper is to underscore the argument for and against existentialism. Even though advocates of existentialism lament that philosophy should begin with individual thinking which is the cornerstone of his or her existence, it’s also prudent to state that individual morals as well as reason and experience does not alone define the true character and origin of a person. This is the thesis of this philosophical movement. The experience one under goes determines the resultant character of that person until that person absurdly perishes. These are among other things that the author explores to understand more about existentialism. The paper is divided into an abstract, as a summary of the author’s intended research goals, in troduction of the topic arguments for and against existentialism and a conclusion of the findings. The author concludes that there is no specific definition of existentialism but it is merely a bundle of ideas that tries to marry Christianity and atheism. It is therefore, a quasi-human secularism philosophy divided into Atheist and theist existentialism. This marriage has so far received considerable criticisms and the writer agrees that it does not justify the philosophical means attached to it. The rationale supporting is that existentialism is more inclined to secular humanism that Christianity and thus theism existentialism has no place in this human philosophy. Introduction The term existentialism is an idealistic doctrine which appeals to individual freedom and responsibility in determining personal actions and motivations. It rests upon the presupposition that â€Å"essence precedes existence† (Sartre 387). Once man appears on the scene, he determines his existence (Sa rtre 388). This philosophy is strongly opposed to the traditional thinking that in search for truth, man appeals rationalism plus empiricism yet you cannot divorce reason and experience from philosophical and human development. These two brains development are sarcastically motivated and have much origin in theism than existentialism. Whereas existentialists developed their thinking based on reason together with experience, all these are a cornerstone of traditional theism. It is agreeable that reason plus experience have linkages with theistic existentialism. And whereas it presupposes that the scientific plus moral ideas cannot sufficiently explain â€Å"human existence† without individual subjective responsibility, collective responsibility cannot also be ignored either. Accordingly, it is a self-descriptive thinking theory of determining one’s own way of life and responsibility than the will of external thinking or force motivated by moral values. Besides, it negat ives the rule of law in society which is divisionary because society without rule on law is a dead society, undemocratic and ungovernable. These advocates are morally dead men looking of moralists to devour. However, this is the ideal of reason, empiricism and freedom to effectively think about what is right and wrong, which are typical moral virtues. It’s a philosophy with no definite definition but its meaning is gathered from the ideas and classical illustrations of philosophers such as â€Å"

Adam Smith vs. Samuel Smiles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Adam Smith vs. Samuel Smiles - Essay Example According to Smith, this entailed a non-interference or hands-off approach by authorities/governments towards private enterprise. His postulates were geared towards advocacy for the establishment of a laissez faire trade policy both on the local and international scene. Samuel Smiles is another free thinker whose postulates on the economic wellbeing of the society heavily echoed Smith’s postulates almost a century later. Smile’s notion was based on the need for enhanced self-actualization and development, which would ultimately lead to a more vibrant individual and societal economic prosperity. Adam Smith was focused more on self-interest and Smiles focused more on morality. This paper seeks to highlight both authors’ arguments with relation to economic liberalism before and during the industrial revolution, and how their focus influenced their works. Economic liberalism can also be regarded as fiscal liberalism because it entails the freeing up or giving a free reign to all matters pertaining to financial activities both at the individual and societal level (Perry, Peden & Von Laue, 2006). The basic aim of economic liberalization is to eliminate the involvement of organizations and institutions in making economic decisions that affect people’s economies.... He attributes the age’s productive powers and increase of quantity of work to three aspects or circumstances. He argues that division of labor enhanced every worker’s ingenuity, it saved time and the great number of machines that facilitated and abridged labor, enabling man to do the work of many (Perry, Peden & Von Laue, 2006). Division of labor also enhanced what Samuel Smiles attributes to failure of society because division of labor encouraged selfishness and individualism. These attributes according to Smiles did not do much in terms of developing societal economies, but encouraged in its stead a culture that bred social vices. These vices negatively impacted on the economic development of communities and nations. Individualism and the self-centered approach towards economic liberalization that Smith advocated for during his time did not help a lot in terms of improving the wellbeing of society. Samuel smiles on the hand, lauds division of labor as a great benefact or to the development and realization of capitalistic ethics. Smiles postulates that true growth in an individual and society in general is only possible through the spirit of genuine self help at a personal level. According to Smiles, no amount of intervention from institutions and legislation can contribute to individual advancement if the individual is not willing. Too much guidance and direction from government policy only leads an individual to exist in a helpless state (Perry, Peden & Von Laue, 2006). This is because they get used to the situation where everything is done for them, and they have no control of their decision-making in life. The prosperity of a nation is dependent upon the sum of individual uprightness, industry and energy just like national

Ancient Egyptian Art & Architecture Essay Example for Free

Ancient Egyptian Art Architecture Essay Due to the scarcity of wood the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud bricks and stone, mainly limestone but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes. The core of the pyramids came from stone quarried in the area already while the limestone, now eroded away, that was used to face the pyramids came from the other side of the Nile River and had to be quarried, ferried across, and cut during the dry season before they could be pulled into place on the pyramid. Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible (unapproachable), new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone. Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments, massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment (decoration) of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns. Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers (landing place) were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial (symbolic) frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors. Many motifs (design) of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab or sacred beetle, the solar disk and the vulture. Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the lotus. Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes and carvings allow us to understand how the Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses, wars that were fought and their beliefs. This was especially true when exploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials in recent years. Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise (accurate) measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the Pharaoh himself. Art Forms: Ancient Egyptian art forms are characterized by regularity and detailed depiction of gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and were intended to provide solace to the deceased in the afterlife. Egyptian art in all forms obeyed one law: the mode of representing Pharaohs, gods, man, nature and the environment. Ancient Egyptian art displays an extraordinarily vivid representation of the Ancient Egyptians socioeconomic status and belief systems. Architecture: Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried and kiln-baked bricks, fine sandstone, limestone and granite. Hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors were abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures. Papyrus: Papyrus is a plant. Papyrus was used by ancient Egyptians for writing and painting. Papyrus texts illustrate all dimensions of ancient Egyptian life and include literary, religious, historical and administrative documents. Pottery: Ancient Egyptians used steatite (some varieties were called soapstone). Different types of pottery items were deposited in tombs of the dead. Some such pottery items represented interior parts of the body, like the lungs, the liver and smaller intestines, which were removed before embalming (the art and science of temporarily preserving human remains). Sculpture: The ancient art of Egyptian sculpture evolved to represent the ancient Egyptian gods, Pharaohs, and the kings and queens, in physical form. Very strict conventions were followed while crafting statues: male statues were darker than the female ones; in seated statues, hands were required to be placed on knees and specific rules governed appearance of every Egyptian god. Egyptian Art Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts produced by the civilization in the lower Nile Valley from 5000 BC to 300 AD. Ancient Egyptian art reached a high level in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. The quality of observation and execution started at a high level and remained near that level throughout the 2nd and 3rd dynasty. Paintings: Egyptian painting is said to be one of the most unique and mysterious attributes of Egypt. Egyptian painting is not oil-based or fresco-based, it is tempura-based. All Egyptian reliefs were painted on a flat surface. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear. After painting, a varnish or resin was usually applied as a protective coating. The paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person. Periods in Art: The Ancient Egyptian art style is known as Amarna art. It was characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images. Also, the human body is portrayed differently in Amarna style artwork than Egyptian art on the whole. Faces are still shown exclusively in profile.

Concept of Care and the Nursing Metaparadigm

Concept of Care and the Nursing Metaparadigm Caring is a core element in nursing even yet it remains elusive to the entire nursing metaparadigm. All nurses as required by their profession must be caring. For it is through caring that nursing derives its uniqueness and contributes significantly to health care (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2002). This is not only the patient as an individual but the family and community as well. Further as the nursing profession continues to take on some of the roles of physicians, it is important to differentiate the profession from that of physicians. Caring seems an obvious component of nursing yet does not feature in the nursing metaparadigm for a number of possible reasons. First, there is a possibility that caring was perceived to be synonymous to nursing. It is true there is little understanding and agreement on what the term refers to. Again, a focus on caring was perceived to delimit the nursing territory (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2 002). The variability of care makes scientific inquiry almost impossible. It is indeed true that medicinal treatment alone can guarantee healing. This however, becomes tricky with the aged, frail people and those suffering from chronic diseases. These groups of persons need care. According research and experiences recorded by nurses; once patients are well taken good care of, it helps boosts their chances of recovery. This is because sickness, even when traced from traditional societies, was perceived to interact with environment, family, community, spirit and the individual persons. The better an individual feels the greater are his or her chances to respond positively to treatment. This good feeling can be provided by the nurse who establishes confidence, a bond and trust with the patient. Caring is therefore an important concept that needs to feature in the nursing metaparadigm. Without this concept nurses may not be well able to execute some of their duties successfully. Concepts and Metaparadigms Concept refers to terms that define phenomena occurring either in thought or nature (McEwen and Willis, 2006). Concepts normally contain some attributes which help to distinguish them. Since the formulation of concepts employs the use of words, concepts can be broadly be categorized as either concrete or abstract. The former can be perceived by the common senses and include concepts such as universe, passion, ground, which are symbolic and a representation of phenomena. On the other hand abstract concepts include love, anger, passion etc. All these terms are particular to an entity and for that matter descriptive in nature. Concepts can be formulated using a single word, two words or a phrase (McEwen and Willis, 2006). Examples of single word concepts include death, fear, anxiety etc. The concepts with two words can take the form of mutual agreement, self-fulfillment etc. There are concepts which take the form of a phrase such as user-friendly services, environmental conscious behavi or, poor service delivery etc. There are many concepts in different disciplines which help to differentiate one from the other. For the reason purpose of systematic study of nature, it is important to come up with concepts that are clear (Duncan, Cloutier and Bailey, 2007). This becomes a stepping stone that gives researchers and scholars a grasp of reality. It also makes the study of phenomena easier. Also in order to communicate meaning clearly to readers there is need for scholars to avoid ambiguity. This means that every time a term is used in a particular context, scholars must endeavor to define it to ensure proper interpretation. On the other hand metaparadigms define a discipline and set the boundaries with other disciplines. It gives the discipline a global perspective which is useful for the practitioners of the discipline to observe phenomena within their parameter (Van Wyk, 2005). In most cases it comprises a range of major concepts which act as its defining elements. These concepts within a metaparadigm act as limitations or boundaries of the discipline. Again, metaparadigm not only defines a discipline but also outlines its concerns. For instance in nursing metaparadigm we have four concepts which include environment, person, nursing and health. These concepts in general help to define nursing metaparadigm and set it apart from other disciplines or professions for that matter. A clear line is therefore able to be drawn between nursing and physician practice. This is possible because of the different metaparadigms. Evidence to Support Position Historically there are four concepts in the nursing metaparadigm which have been used to describe the context and content of the nursing profession. As much as the four concepts; health, environment, person and nursing continue to be embraced in the nursing fraternity, they have been a number of challenges and proposals being experienced and given as alternatives (Schim, Benkert, Bell, Walker and Danford, 2007). The nursing metaparadigm however, continues to be recognized by all professions in the field. Apart from the four components the concept of caring continues to be a contentious issue. For a long period caring has been ignored since it could not be subjected to scientific inquiry, measured and its impact determined (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2002). In many instances the ability to cure by use of scientific means through medicinal treatments alone renders the role of caring obsolete. This however, does not apply to those who are weak, aged and suffe ring from chronic diseases (Castledine, 2009). These ones have to be cared for in order to boost their recovery process. Even with the many perceptions and definitions there seem to be an agreement on the components of care. The major focuses of these components are the physical, emotional and psychosocial requirements of the patients (Castledine, 2009). The patient needs to be cared for and in this case the staff is concerned primarily with giving care and little attention is given to end results. For this reason there is need to understand care in a far more refined manner compared to the traditional view of the same (Van Wyk, 2005). It is important for the care givers to be compassionate with those receiving care. The level of concern with the health of patients makes nurses not only to experience whatever the patient is going through but give hope and assurances or recovery. The nurse can also offer assistance in areas where the patients is unable to perform. There are also specific conditions and situations which call for care from the nurses. These problems may be social or medical. Most importan tly care much aim at the preservation of a patients dignity (Castledine, 2009). According to research carried out to examine how students perceive stories shared by nurses, researchers found out the views of four students which centered on the care as developing of trust (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). The stories told by nurses tended to encourage as well as make one student gain confidence to undertake similar experiences. This student in particular went into mimicking the behavior of the nurse such as the use of non-verbal communication thus leading to desirable results. In this way it became apparent to the student that through experimenting with some of the ways demonstrated and practiced by nurses, one could actually make a bond with patients. There is much excitement and one is encouraged to go and try it out with the patients. The view of another student tended to perceive a great percentage of caring resulting from being open to patients and at the same time listening attentively to what they say (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). This student emphasized the need to concentrate on the patient while withholding ones judgment. In this way the student perceived caring as being manifested in a number of ways but most importantly it was channeled towards trust and establishing a bond with the patient (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). Similarly, the same student craved for a mentor who would be instrumental to help her gain confidence, learn to care and see to an improvement of her nursing practice (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). It is true that the care shown to patients makes them feel good about themselves. The nurse should therefore endeavor to improve these skills in order to be successful in executing duty. Moreover, it is important for nurses to exhibit confidence, communicate effectively, respect and be available always to attend to a patients needs. This is a tall order which requires the nurse to be comfortable in a number of situations (Rayman, Ellison, Holmes, 1999). The only way to achieve this is through experience and to allow exposure to a number of situations. These experiences are gained from a number of places. Similarly, it was noted by the student that caring involves being able to stay current on nursing practices, ability to prioritize and doing what is right (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). The concept of caring comprise of various attributes. These attitudes are essential to nursing as a whole. They include attitude, action, variability, relationship and action (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). Nursing as a profession pays much attention to relationship between nurse and patient. This relationship is initiated by the former with the intention of taking action. It is a relationship that calls for cooperation and respect from both parties. The patients require such a relationship for assistance as most of them are not able to care for themselves. In some cases the relationship has been perceived to be a form of friendship as there is concern and affection for one another (Rayman, Ellison and Holmes, 1999). The nurse being the initiator and most active in the relationship is a companion in the clients journey towards recovery. In order for this relationship to be fulfilling there must be intimacy, trust and responsibility. The nurse has the responsibility to develop a trusti ng relationship which comes with patience, openness, love and sincerity. Proximity to the patient is vital and important for the development of intimacy and trust. Since the nurse is in a professional relationship with the patient then all responsibilities are at facing to that direction. The person who is receiving care must be assured of well- being through responsible actions shown by the nurse. Professional care givers therefore need to act in the most current and knowledgeable manner towards their clients (Khademian and Vizeshfar, 2008). In this mission there are guided by professional ethical codes. For instance their conduct must be of high standard and also their decision making must be guided by principles of practice. In conceptual analysis of care there must be action exhibited by the nurse towards the patient. This is not only performing some activities for the patient but also ensuring ones presence at all times. The care giver sees the need of an individual and more than wiling to respond to these needs in a professional manner (Khademian and Vizeshfar, 2008). It is important for instance for the nurse to be interested in the patient as a human being worthy of respect and dignity. It is from her that the nurse will start to exhibit care for the patient. The most obvious of this kind of care is physical. In this case some actions that would make patients feel good about themselves. These actions may include a rub on the back, assisting the patients in and out of bed, chair, dressing and undressing etc. In some cases the nurses will have to assist female patients to do their hair and even apply make-up (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). All these ensure that the patients feel good about themselves. They feel their live has not simply stalled due to sickness but someone is more than willing to see them recover and carry on with the day to day life. A caring nurse must also exhibit a caring touch. As much as the action might seem small, its significance is great. It is a form of non-verbal communication important to establish rapport between the two and changes the perceptions of the patient towards the nurse. Actions such as holding hands, gently stroking the hair are some of the actions that cement the relationship between the nurse and the patient. The physical presence of the nurse is important just like emotional presence. The nurse must not only shares time and space with patients but also listens actively (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). There is need to be a part of the family and share their fears, hopes and aspirations. It is important at this time for the family and the patient to be assured that they are not alone. A nurse may seat by the bedside of the patient telling stories and contributing to whatever the family have to offer. It is simply the feeling of togetherness and appearing like one family. This is a holistic and genuine engagement of the two parties that helps build on trust and confidence. Caring as a concept varies in different circumstances, people involved and the environment at large (Daniels, 2004). Variability in care is therefore another way to describe the changing nature and fluidity of caring. For this reason the more a nurse practices care giving to patients the more experience gained. It is therefore expected of the nurse to offer care corresponding to environment and nature of the patient. There is need to understand that patients are different and need assorted care and attention. Importance to Nursing The introduction of the concept of care in nursing metaparadigm will help reduce emotional labor that always accompanies giving of care among nurses. In the work place nurses normally have emotional regulation which is likely to lead to emotional exhaustion or burn out (Huynh, Alderson and Thompson, 2008). In any organization and in nursing profession in particular it is vital that workers be able to feel their emotions and be aware of the personal costs associated with the services they give to patients. It is important to note that emotional exhaustion of the nurses can come as a result of a number of factors including depersonalization of the patient. As an attribute to care, variability must be taken into consideration such that patients are treated as individuals (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). This cannot be easily achieved if the nurse has not been oriented on some of the principles of care. His or her individuality must be taken into account. Caring gives nursing its uniqueness hence the reason for nurses to be directly involved in care giving. In the modern health care however, the role of care giving is remotely executed by the nurse. For instance it is common for support staff to aid in care giving while under the supervision of a nurse (Clifford, 1995). In this case the role of the nurse is reduced to that of a supervisor and therefore contact with the patient is reduced. The all important link between the nurse and the patient is cut. This makes treatment to be a long and complicated experience for both the nurse and the patient. In defining nursing as a formalized manner of giving care then it becomes easy for the nurses to respond to the needs of patients with compassion. There will be little or no pressure at all for the nurses to fulfill demands that are farfetched from nursing. Their activities as care givers will be guided by the need to respond to health care. The available resources will therefore dictate the activities of the nurses (Clifford, 1995). Through the experience gained in caring for the patients, nurses feel empowered and become mush tolerant of uncertainty. Since an individual is able to connect with the patients, it becomes easy to respond to their needs (Daniels, 2004). In addition the satisfaction gained through work is increased as the nurse becomes energized and passionate about work. It is for the same reason that the nurse is able to empathize with the patient. The nurse is close to the patient and attends to all demands being made, it quickens the recovery progress. The patient is not ashamed to communicate and share deep feelings. On the other hand the nurses are well able to experience the illnesses thus increase their understanding. In this way it becomes easier to attend to similar cases in future. Care education is also essential in nursing profession more so preparing nurses for care in their profession. As much as the theory of care differs greatly from the life experiences in the field; still the need to get the education is vital. Once the students have gotten the knowledge in school it will help change their attitude and more importantly give them a clue of what to expect in their work. This knowledge is essential for preparation and also in laying down a framework for the nurses such that they are aware from the onset what is entailed in their profession (Clifford, 1995). In addition the knowledge is important for the sake of contemporary practices in health care and gives insight to the future of nursing. For a long time nursing as a profession has been misunderstood and portrayed negatively. The inclusion of caring in nursing metaparadigm is important in the creation of a good public image for the nurses and the profession. Once the public has a good image upon a profession it helps boost recruitment and also change the nurses attitudes towards work (Takase, Maude and Manias, 2006). The nurses will also improve on their self-image which largely contributes to performance in the job. Conclusion There is still much debate on whether or not the concept of caring should be included in the nursing metaparadigm. In the nursing profession this concept continues to be controversial. The reason for this controversy is the fact that nurses continue to give care despite the concept being ignored. This may appear simply as an ignored concept but in reality it has been and remains part and parcel of the nursing profession. In fact there are those who have equated nursing as a whole to caring. In this case caring seems to have been a metaparadigm of nursing alongside health, person, and environment. In the modern health care, nurses have delegated the role of care to subordinate staff while maintaining the role of supervisors. As much as the nurse is still in control, there is lack of attachment with the patient. The public opinion of nursing is far from impressive as most of the people are ill informed about the profession. The majority tend to think nursing to be synonymous to caring. The nurse is perceived as a subordinate to the physician, receives instructions from the doctors, earns less salary etc. All these are stereotypes most of which emerge from the tradition role of the nurse as a care giver. This caring is understood casually with little understanding of the profession. It is for the same reason that people feel they know quite well the role of the nurses. For this matter they are ready to judge on the delivery of services. It is important for the nurse to be respected, seen to be compassionate, concerned and competent. The importance of caring is not only confined to the nurses but the family and the patient as well. Most importantly however, is the fact that caring will help increase the rate of healing and health thus lighten the work of the nurses. It is significant to all involved in the entire process of healing as it reduces anxiety and fear for both the family and patients. In this way it helps to empower the patient, give comfort, hope, security and self-esteem. Eventually, nurses are able to enjoy their work. This is as a result of the nurse being perceived differently by the patient thus boosting morale. Caring should therefore be incorporated in the nursing metaparadigm since it will be a major boost to the profession. The nurses will feel good about their profession as they are trained, gained experience and able to develop a relationship with patients.

Defining And Understanding Crisis Intervention Social Work Essay

Defining And Understanding Crisis Intervention Social Work Essay We live in an era in which crisis-inducing events and acute crisis episodes are prevalent. Each year, millions of people are confronted with crisis-inducing events that they cannot resolve on their own, and they often turn for help to crisis units of community mental health centers, psychiatric screening units, outpatient clinics, hospital emergency rooms, college counseling centers, family counseling agencies, and domestic violence programs (Roberts, 2005). Crisis clinicians must respond quickly to the challenges posed by clients presenting in a crisis state. Critical decisions need to be made on behalf of the client. Clinicians need to be aware that some clients in crisis are making one last heroic effort to seek help and hence may be highly motivated to try something different. Thus, a time of crisis seems to be an opportunity to maximize the crisis clinicians ability to intervene effectively as long as he or she is focused in the here and now, willing to rapidly assess the clients problem and resources, suggest goals and alternative coping methods, develop a working alliance, and build upon the clients strengths. At the start it is critically important to establish rapport while assessing lethality and determining the precipitating events/situations. It is then important to identify the primary presenting problem and mutually agree on short-term goals and tasks. By its nature, crisis intervention involves identifying failed coping sk ills and then helping the client to replace them with adaptive coping skills. It is imperative that all mental health clinicians-counseling psychologists, mental health counselors, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, and crisis hotline workers-be well versed and knowledgeable in the principles and practices of crisis intervention. Several million individuals encounter crisis-inducing events annually, and crisis intervention seems to be the emerging therapeutic method of choice for most individuals. Crisis Intervention: The Need for a Model A crisis has been de ¬Ã‚ ned as An acute disruption of psychological homeostasis in which ones usual coping mechanisms fail and there exists evidence of distress and functional impairment. The subjective reaction to a stressful life experience that compromises the individuals stability and ability to cope or function. The main cause of a crisis is an intensely stressful, traumatic, or hazardous event, but two other conditions are also necessary: (1) the individuals perception of the event as the cause of considerable upset and/or disruption; and (2) the individuals inability to resolve the disruption by previously used coping mechanisms. Crisis also refers to an upset in the steady state. It often has  ¬Ã‚ ve components: a hazardous or traumatic event, a vulnerable or unbalanced state, a precipitating factor, an active crisis state based on the persons perception, and the resolution of the crisis. (Roberts, 2005, p. 778) Given such a de  ¬Ã‚ nition, it is necessary that crisis workers have in mind a framework or blueprint to guide them in responding. In short, a crisis intervention model is needed, and one is needed for a host of reasons, such as the ones given as follows. When confronted by a person in crisis, clinicians need to address that persons distress, impairment, and instability by operating in a logical and orderly process (Greenstone Leviton, 2002). The profetional, often with limited clinical experience, is less likely to exacerbate the crisis with well-intentioned but haphazard responding when trained to work within the framework of a systematic crisis intervention model. A inclusive intervention allows the novice as well as the experienced clinician to be mindful of maintaining the  ¬Ã‚ ne line that allows for a response that is active and directive enough but does not take problem ownership away from the client. Finally, a intervention should suggest steps for how the crisis worker can intenti onally meet the client where he or she is at, assess level of risk, mobilize client resources, and move strategically to stabilize the crisis and improve functioning. Crisis intervention is no longer regarded as a passing fad or as an emerging discipline. It has now evolved into a specialty mental health  ¬Ã‚ eld that stands on its own. Based on a solid theoretical foundation and a praxis that is born out of over 50 years of empirical and experiential grounding, crisis intervention has become a multidimensional and  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exible intervention method. However, the primary focus of crisis literature has been on giving aid and support, which is understandable given that the first concern in the aftermath of a crisis is always to provide assistance (McFarlane, 2000), not to conduct systematic research (Raphael, Wilson, Meldrum, McFarlane, 1996). Experts in crisis intervention have focused on practical issues such as developing intervention models that manage postcrisis reactions (Paten, Violanti, Dunning, 2000), with little attention being given to the development of theory (Slaikeu, 1990). Slaikeu stated that crisis theories are more like a cluster of assumptions, rather than principles based on research that explain or predict the effect of crises on individuals. Ursano et al. (1996) agreed, stating that clinical observations and implications derived from mediators of traumatic stress have guided interventions, rather than theory. Although these efforts have increased the understanding of the nature of crises, a need exists to mo ld these assumptions and observations into theory. The field of crisis intervention is predicated upon the existence of the phenomenon of psychological crisis. Because crisis intervention is the natural corollary of the psychological crisis, this review begins with a definition of the crisis phenomenon. Definition of crisis by Caple Crisis occurs when people encounter an obstacle in achieving the important objectives of life. This obstacle and cannot be overcome by means of customary methods used dealing with difficulties.  This results in a state of disorganization and confusion, in which made numerous unsuccessful attempts of solutions. Moreover, the crisis resulted from the problems on the road practically important in achieving objectives, obstacles where people feel that they are not able to overcome through the usual choices and behavior. (1964) by CARKHUFFA and Berenson Crises are crises so that the affected people do not know any ways of dealing themselves with the situation (1977) by Belkin Crises of this personal difficulties or situations that deprive people of ability and prevent conscious control of his life (1984) by Brammer Crisis is a state of disorganization in which man is confronted with the destruction of important objectives of life or profound impairment of their life cycle and methods of dealing with stressful factors.  The term crisis typically refers to a sense of fear, shock and experienced difficulties in connection with the disorder, and not to the same disorder (1985) by MARINO Crisis develops in clear stages: a) the situation is critical, which controls whether the normal mechanisms for dealing deal with difficult enough; b) the mounting tension and disorganization accompanying this situation excess capacity it affected people to cope with difficulties; c) the situation requires reaching for the extra resources (ex. professional counseling); d) may prove necessary referral to a specialist who will help in removal of serious personality disorder (1995) by Badura-Madej The crisis is transitional state of internal imbalance, caused by critical event or life events.  This condition requires significant changes and decisions. (1999) The Chinese word for crisis presents a good depiction of the components of a crisis. The word  crisis  in Chinese is formed with the characters for  danger  and  opportunity. A crisis presents an obstacle, trauma, or threat, but it also presents an opportunity for either growth or decline.   Crisis is self-defined , because crisis is any situation for which a person does not have adequate coping skills. Therefore, What is a crisis for one person may not be a crisis for another person. In mental health terms, a crisis refers not necessarily to a traumatic situation or event, but to a persons reaction to an event. One person might be deeply affected by an event, while another individual suffers little or no ill effects. Crises may range from seemingly minor situations, such as not being prepared for class, to major life changes, such as death or divorce. Crisis is environmentally based. What is now a crisis may not have been a crisis before or would not be a crisis in a different setting.   Basic Crisis Theory: Since Lindemanns (1944, 1956) seminal contribution of a basic crisis theory stemming from his work in loss and grief, the development of crisis theory has advanced considerably. Lindemann identified crises as having: (1) a period of disequilibrium; (2) a process of working through the problems; and (3) an eventual restoration of equilibrium. Together with the contributions of Caplan (1964), this work evolved to eventually include crisis intervention for psychological reactions to traumatic experiences and expanded the mental health fields knowledge base in applying basic crisis theory to other types of crises experienced by people. In addition to recognizing that a crisis is accompanied by temporary disequilibrium, crisis theorists identify the potential for human growth from the crisis experience and the belief that resolution may lead to positive and constructive outcomes such as enhanced coping abilities. Thus, the duality contained in a crisis is the co-existence of danger and opportunity (Gilliland James, 1997). One part of the crisis state is a persons increased vulnerability and reduced defensiveness. This creates an openness in people for trying different methods of problem-solving and leads to change characterizing life crises (Kendricks, 1985). Expanded Crisis Theory: While expanded crisis theory, as we understand it today, merges key constructs from systems, adaptation, psychoanalytic and interpersonal theories (Gilliland James, 1997), the advent of systemic thinking heralded a new way of viewing crisis states. By shifting away from focusing exclusively on the individual in crisis to understanding their state within interpersonal/familial relationships and life events, entry points and avenues for intervention significantly increase. Systems theory promotes the notion that traditional cause and effect formulations have a tendency to overlook the complex and difficult to understand symptomlogy often observed in people in crisis. Especially with younger populations, crisis assessments should occur only within the familial and social context of the child in crisis. More recently the ecological perspective is gaining popularity as it evolves and develops into models of crisis intervention. From this perspective, crises are believed to be best viewed in the persons total environmental context, including political and socio-economic contexts. Thus, in the United States, mobile crisis teams primarily responding to adult populations use an ecological model. Issues of poverty, homelessness, chronicity, marginalization and pervasive disenfranchisement characterize the client population served (Cohen, 1990). Ecocsystem Theory: Most recently an ecosystem theory of crisis is evolving to explain not only the individual in crisis, but to understand those affected by crisis and the ecological impact on communities. For example, the devastating rate of suicide and attempted suicide in Inuit youth reverberates through their communities on multiple levels. Ecosystem theory also deals with larger scale crises from environmental disasters (e.g. oil spills) to human disasters (e.g. Columbine school shootings). Applied Crisis Theory: Applied crisis theory encompasses the following three domains: Developmental crises  which are events in the normal flow of human growth and development whereby a dramatic change produces maladaptive responses; Events such as birth, which is a crisis both for the mother and the infant, the onset of puberty and adolescence, marriage, the menopause, and so on as we progress through the biological stages of life, are known as developmental crises, These differ from situational crisis in that they necessarily occur at a given point in development and everyone has to pass through them. This goes along with Eriksons theory of personality development, in that personality continues to develop through life, changing radically as a function of how an individual deals with each stage of development. There are several causes of developmental crisis. One cause is a deficit in skills that can keep a person from achieving developmental tasks or turn a predictable transition into a crisis. For example, if a parent does not have the skills to be a parent, having a baby could become a crisis situation. Developmental crisis can also occur when the individual is not prepared for milestone events, such as menopause, widowhood, etc. Another cause is when one of lifes developmental transition is perceived by the individual as being out of phase with societys expectations. Examples of this could be leaving home, choosing a partner, marrying, having kids, and retiring. Situational crises  which emerge with the occurrence of uncommon and extraordinary events which the individual has no way of predicting or controlling; Traumatic events which might or might not happen at a given time. These could either be major catastrophes such as earthquakes, floods, etc., which could affect a whole section of society. In other words occurs in response to a sudden unexpected event in a persons life. The critical life events revolve around experiences of grief and loss. like loss of a job, divorce, abortion, death of a love one, severe physical or mental illness, or any other sudden tragic event. One characteristic of situational crises is their sudden onset and unpredictability. While a struggle with developmental issues usually builds over time, situational crises strike from nowhere all at once. Unexpectedness is another factor of situational crises. People generally believe it wont happen to me, and are blind-sided when it does happen to them. Emergency quality is another characteristic of situational crises. When a situational crisis hits, it needs to be dealt with immediately. Situational crises also impact the entire community. These events usually affect large numbers of people simultaneously, requiring intervention with large groups in a relatively short period of time. The last characteristic of situational crises is the presence of both danger and opportunity. Reorganization must eventually begin. This reorganization has the potential for the individual to emerge on either a higher or lower level of functioning. Existential crises  which refer to inner conflicts and anxieties that relate to human issues of purpose, responsibility and autonomy (e.g., middle life crisis). It is a stage of development at which an individual questions the very foundations of their life: whether their life has any meaning, purpose or value. An existential crisis is often provoked by a significant event in the persons life marriage, separation, major loss, the death of a loved one; a life-threatening experience; psycho-active drug use; adult children leaving home; reaching a personally-significant age (turning 30, turning 40, etc.), etc. Usually, it provokes the sufferers  introspection  about personal mortality, thus revealing the psychological repression of said awareness Each person and situation is unique and should be responded to as such. Therefore, it is useful to understand the crisis from one or more of these domains in order to understand the complexities of the individuals situation and to intervene in more effective ways. One would also tend to see a younger population with developmental and/or situational crises (Gilliland James, 1997). Due to the duration of the crisis, we may distinguish Acute crises Chronic crises Stages of a Crisis In order to articulate the elements of a responsive mobile crisis service a conceptual framework of the stages of crisis is presented. There is agreement in the literature that most crisis interventions should last about one to six weeks (Caplan, 1964; Kendricks, 1985). This suggested time frame is based on identifiable stages of a crisis. Frequently cited in the literature (Gilliland James, 1997; Smith, 1978) is Caplans four stages of crisis: Phase I The person has an increase in anxiety in response to a traumatic event;  if the coping mechanisms work, theres no crisis;  if coping mechanisms do not work (are ineffective) a crisis occurs. Phase II In the second phase anxiety continues to increase. Phase III Anxiety continues to increase the person asks for help. (If the person has been emotionally isolated before the trauma they probably will not have adequate support a crisis will surely occur). Phase IV Is the  active crisis   here the persons inner resources supports are inadequate. The person has a short attention span, ruminates (goes on about it), wonders what they did or how they could have avoided the trauma. Their behavior is impulsive unproductive. Relationships with others suffer,  they view others in terms of how can they help to solve the problem. The person feels like they are losing their mind,  this is frightening Be sure to teach them that when the anxiety decreases that thinking will be clearer. While others have proposed slightly varying stages, there are commonalties in understanding that crises are time-limited, have a beginning, middle and end, and that intervention early in a crisis can produce stabilization and a return to the pre-crisis state. No intervention, or inadequate intervention, can result in chronic patterns of behavior that result in transcrisis states (Gilliland James, 1997). Transcrisis: the original crisis event becomes submerged into the unconscious and re-emerges when anxiety is re-experienced. A woman who experienced rape will re-experience problems with being sexually intimate with a man and experience problems in intimate relationships. Crisis stages can be distinguished from mental disorders in that the person in crisis can be described as having normal and functional mental health before and after the crisis. Additionally crisis tend to be of limited duration and after the crisis is over, the clients turmoil will frequently subside. There however persons who can stay in crisis state for month or years. Such individual is described as being In transcrisis state. Its also possible for transcris state to lead to the development of anxiety and other tipes of mental disorder (ex.PTSD). Crisis Intervention Crisis intervention is the form of psychological help, that is focused on therapeutic contact, concentrated on the problem, that caused the crisis, limited in time, when the person is confronted with the crisis and has to solve it. That kind of help lets us reduce the crisis response and minimize functional impairment. (Badura-Madej, 1999) Crisis intervention is emergency first aid for mental health (Ehly, 1986). Crisis intervention involves three components: 1) the crisis, the perception of an unmanageable situation; 2) the individual or group in crisis; and 3) the helper, or mental health worker who provides aid. Crisis intervention requires that the person experiencing crisis receive timely and skillful support to help cope with his/her situation before future physical or emotional deterioration occurs. Crisis intervention provides the opportunity and mechanisms for change to those who are experiencing psychological disequilibrium, who are feeling overwhelmed by their current situation, who have exhausted their skills for coping, and who are experiencing personal discomfort. Crisis intervention is a process by which a crisis worker identifies, assesses, and intervenes with the individual in crisis so as to restore balance and reduce the effects of the crisis in his/her life. The individual is then connected with a resource network to reinforce the change. HISTORY Crisis Intervention Origins of crisis intervention, should be found in the topics related to the suicide prevention, the development of environmental psychiatry, as well as a vocation to life services dealing with emergency psychotherapeutic assistance for victims of traumatic events, such as: war or natural disasters (Badura-Madej, 1999). The roots of crisis intervention come from the pioneering work of two community psychiatrists-Erich Lindemann and Gerald Caplan in the mid-1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. We have come a far cry from its inception in the 1950s and 1960s. Speci ¬Ã‚ cally, in 1943 and 1944 community psychiatrist, Dr. Erich Lindemann at Massachusetts General Hospital conceptualized crisis theory based on his work with many acute and grief stricken survivors and relatives of the 493 dead victims of Bostons worst nightclub  ¬Ã‚ re at the Coconut Grove. Gerald Caplan, a psychiatry professor at Massachusetts General Hospital and the Harvard School of Public Health, expanded Lindemanns (1944) pioneering work. Caplan (1961, 1964) was the  ¬Ã‚ rst clinician to describe and document the four stages of a crisis reaction: initial rise of tension from the emotionally hazardous crisis precipitating event, increased disruption of daily living because the individual is stuck and cannot resolve the crisis quickly, te nsion rapidly increases as the individual fails to resolve the crisis through emergency problem-solving methods, and the person goes into a depression or mental collapse or may partially resolve the crisis by using new coping methods. A number of crisis intervention practice models have been promulgated over the years (e.g., Collins Collins, 2005; Greenstone Leviton, 2002; Jones, 1968; Roberts Grau, 1970). The goals of crisis intervention are relatively limited, relate to the immediate crisis situation and are the following: Reduction in disequilibriurn or relief of symptoms of crisis Restoration to precrisis level of functioning Some understanding of the relevant precipitating events Identification of remedial measures which the client can take or make available through community resources. Connecting the current situation with past life experiences and conflicts Initiating new modes of thinking, perceiving feeling and developing new adaptive and coping responses which are useful beyond the immediate crisis situation, leading to an emancipated maturation and empowerment. Basic Principles While there is no one single model of crisis intervention (Jacobson, Strickler, Mosley, 1968), there is common agreement on the general principles to be employed by EMH practitioners to alleviate the acute distress of victims, to restore independent functioning and to prevent or mitigate the aftermath of psychological trauma and PTSD (Butcher, 1980; Everly Mitchell, 1999; Flannery, 1998; Raphael, 1986; Robinson Mitchell, 1995; Sandoval, 1985; Wollman, 1993). 1. Intervene immediately. By definition, crises are emotionally hazardous situations that place victims at high risk for maladaptive coping or even for being immobilized. The presence onsite of EMH personnel as quickly as possible is paramount. 2. Stabilize. One important immediate goal is the stabilization of the victims or the victim community actively mobilizing resources and support networks to restore some semblance of order and routine. Such a mobilization provides the needed tools for victims to begin to function independently. 3. Facilitate understanding. Another important step in restoring victims to pre-crisis level of functioning is to facilitate their understanding of what has occurred. This is accomplished by gathering the facts about what has occurred, listening to the victims recount events, encouraging the expression of difficult emotions, and helping them understand the impact of the critical event. 4. Focus on problem-solving. Actively assisting victims to use available resources to regain control is an important strategy for EMH personnel. Assisting the victim in solving problems within the context of what the victim feels is possible enhances independent functioning. 5. Encourage self-reliance. Akin to active problem-solving is the emphasis on restoring self-reliance in victims as an additional means to restore independent functioning and to address the aftermath of traumatic events. Victims should be assisted in assessing the problems at hand, in developing practical strategies to address those problems, and in fielding those strategies to restore a more normal equilibrium. The practice of crisis intervention, typically consist of the following (Badura Madej, 1999): Providing emotional support to facilitate the reaction to emotion; Confronted with the reality and countering tendencies to deny and distorted to form at the moment the most important problem to solution; Assess the current ways of coping in terms of their adaptive nature; Referring to good coping strategies or creating new strategies; A plan of assistance. Characteristics of a crisis intervention (Badura-Madej, 1999): Assistance as soon as possible after the critical event, preferably at the time, when the existing ways of coping are exhausted with crisis, and new constructive behaviors yet not created to provide the support reduces the risk run adaptive ways of coping; Focus on the situation and the current problem associated with the crisis (the here and now ), taking into account the individual history of man (analysis of this story helps to understand the nature and depth of the crisis reaction) Emotional support, often also material support (accommodation, shelter, food, drinking, etc.) to ensure a sense of security to the person in crisis; A large intensity of contacts (depending on the situation) and sometimes even daily; Time limit (6 10 meetings) flexibility in assisting interactions from the directive operation, client collaboration, to the non-directive action; Mobilizing the natural support system for people in crisis, cooperation with other institutions, providing possible support from institutions to holistic approach to people in crisis (eg, OPS, police, etc.). Crisis Intervention Models (Gilliland and James, 2005) Practice and intervention literature indicate the usefulness of certain general theoretical models for the construction of concrete measures for persons in crisis.  Belkin (1984) proposes a classification includes equilibrium model, cognitive model and psycho-social model of transformation (Gilliland and James, 2005). Equilibrium model Equilibrium model indicates a basic fact of the continuum balance imbalance, which differentiates functioning non-crisis and crisis.  Persons in crisis, experiencing state of disorganization, lack of balance of basic psychological functions, are not able to effectively use their customary ways of coping and methods of solving problems. The aim of the intervention from the point of view of equilibrium model is to assist the client in regained pre-crisis equilibrium.  therefore the use of this approach is the most justified in the initial stages of intervention, when a person has no sense of control over himself and course of events is confused and unable to take adequate decisions and appropriate action.  Until the client does not recover even though part of the capacity to coping, the main effort should be directed to stabilize the condition of the person.  Only then it is possible to use his abilities to cope, and other internal and external resources to solve a crisis problem.  Equilibrium model considered is the cleanest model of crisis intervention (Caplan, 1961; for: Gilliland and James, 2005). Cognitive model The cognitive model of crisis intervention is based on the premise that crisis are rooted in faulty thinking about the event or situations that surround the crisis not in the events themselves or the facts about events or situations (Ellis, 1962). The goal of this model is to help people become aware of and change their views and beliefs about crisis events or situations. The basic tenet of the cognitive model is that people can gain control of crisis in their lives by changing their thinking, especially by recognizing and disputing the irrational and self-defeating parts of their cognitions and by retaining and focusing on the rational and self-enhancing elements of their thinking. The messages that people in crisis send themselves become very negative and twisted, in contrast to the reality of the situation. Dilemmas that are constant and grinding wear people out, pushing their internal state of perception more and more toward negative self-talk until their cognitive sets are so negative that no amount of preaching can convince them anything positive will ever come from the situation. Crisis intervention in this model can be compared to work on rewriting your own program by the client, which on a positive Coupling back and repeat the exercise in self-assessment of the new situation, be able to change emotions and behavior in a more positive and constructive. Cognitive model can be used in practice when the client has already regained some sufficient level of psychological stability, allowing where appropriate perception, drawing conclusions, making decisions and experimenting with new behaviors. Basic concepts of this approach are fond in the rational-emotive work of Ellis (1982), the cognitive-behavioral approach of Meichenbaum (1977), and the cognitive system of Beck (1976). Psychosocial transition model Psychosocial transition model is another useful approach to intervention in crisis.  This model is based on the assumption that man is the result of the interaction between the genetic equipment, and the learning process, setting the social environment. Both people and their environment and social influence processes are subject to constant change. Therefore, crises may be related to both internal and external (psychosocial, social and environmental) difficulties. The purpose of crisis intervention, as seen from this perspective, is to help, cooperation with client in an adequate assessment of both internal and external circumstances influencing the emergence of the crisis, as well as assist in the selection of effective alternatives to the (clients) existing, inefficient behavior, inappropriate attitudes and inefficiencies how to use the resources of the environment in which I live. To obtain a stand-alone control over his private life customers can be needed for obtaining adequate internal mechanisms to deal with difficulties, as well as social support and environmental resources. The Psychosocial transition model does not perceive crisis simply an interal state of affairs that resides totally within the individual. It reaches outside the individual and askes what system need to be changed. Systems such as family, peer group, work environment, religious community are examples who can also support or interfere with the psychological ada